Object Definitions

As we've seen a large part of writing a game in adv3Lite (or indeed in TADS 3) consists of defining objects. You will spend such a large proportion of your time doing this in your own games that it's worth going over the business of defining objects a little more thoroughly.

Physical Objects and Programming Objects

First, we need to bear in mind two different senses of the word object. First, there's the ordinary, every day sense of physical object, meaning something like a chair or a table or a rock or a ball or a house or a wall or a tree or... well, I'm sure you get the idea. Second there's the special sense of programming object, meaning an entity in your program that's a container or binder for a related bundle of code (i.e. programming instructions) and data. In this section we're concerned with objects in this second sense, but confusion is possible since in TADS 3 (as in several other IF languages) objects in this second, programming, sense are frequently used to represent objects in the first sense, so for example if you have a red handbag in your game it might be represented in your adv3Lite code as a programming object called redHandbag. That said, you should be aware that in TADS 3 programming objects are also used for other purposes than representing physical objects in your game world.

Objects and Classes

Every object belongs to one or more classes. In TADS 3 class definitions and object definitions are actually very similar, but they perform different functions. An object represents a particular item; a class is like a mould or template for producing particular items. For example, your dog Fido and your neighbour's dog Rover might be particular instantiations of the Dog class. Rather like the Platonic ideal of a Dog, the Dog class exists nowhere in the real world as a physical entity, but defines the properties and behaviour that are common to all dogs. Particular instantiations of the Dog class, the fido object and the rover object, say, can then customize or override the definitions on the Dog class, or add additional methods and properties of their own, to mark out Fido and Rover as particular dogs with their individual differences (as well as the common canine behaviour they inherit from the Dog class).

Just as objects can belong to classes, so can classes. For example the Labrador class might belong to the Dog class which in turn belongs to the Mammal class which in turn belongs to the Animal class. Labrador is then said to be a subclass of Dog or, more or less equivalently, to inherit from Dog, while Dog is the superclass or parent class of Labrador. The inheritance relationship is transitive, so that Labrador is also a subclass of Mammal and Animal and inherits (indirectly, via Dog) from both.

In TADS 3 all objects ultimately inherit from the object class. All objects that represent physical objects in your game also inherit from the Thing class (an indirect subclass of object), or else from a (direct or indirect) subclass of Thing. Every physical location in your game is represented by an object of the Room class (or a subclass of Room); the Room class is itself a subclass of Thing.

TADS 3, and hence adv3Lite, supports multiple inheritance, which means that an object (or class) can inherit from more than one superclass. While you don't have to worry about this just yet, you will be encountering such multiple inheritance later on in this tutorial, and we'll saying a bit more about inheritance in general later in this chapter.

Defining Objects

A typical object definition may be divided (for immediate purposes) into a header and a body. The header consists of the object name (that is the programmatic name of the object, the name by which it is identified and referred to in your program code) followed by a colon followed by the class to which it belongs, or by a list of the classes to which it belong, for example:

redBall: Thing

stoneAltar: Surface, Fixture

The body of the object definition then consists of zero or more property definitions plus zero or more method definitions, either terminated by a semicolon or enclosed in curly braces. For example:

redBall: Thing
   vocab = 'red ball;; round'
   desc = "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
;

Or equivalently:

redBall: Thing
{
   vocab = 'red ball;; round'
   desc = "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
}

In what follows we shall normally use the first of these forms (with the terminating semicolon, rather than the enclosing braces), although we'll eventually encounter a few cases where we have to use the second.

In both the examples above, vocab, desc and bounces are all properties, while doBounce() is a method. A property is a member of an object that holds a piece of data (such as a number, some text, or a reference to another object). As in the examples above it is defined using the property name, followed by an equals sign, followed by the value of the property (or, at least, the initial value of the property when the game begins, since the value of properties can change during the course of the game). A method is a block of code (i.e. a set of instructions) that's executed when the method in question is invoked (or called — the two mean the same thing). We'll go into more detail about methods in a later section of this chapter. For now, note that we don't use an equals sign after a method name when defining (or overriding) a method on an object.

There is also a short-form method definition that looks like a property definition:

    property-name = (expression)

For example:

    isListed = (!isFixed)    
    
    momentum = (mass * velocity)

These definitions are equivalent to:

 
  isListed()  { return !isFixed; }

  momentum()  { return mass * velocity; }

Don't worry if you don't fully understand what these methods mean yet; that will become clearer when we go into more detail on methods later in this chapter. The thing to note for now is simply that this is another (and arguably hybrid) way of defining a property that acts like a method, or rather a method that looks like a property.

The only parts of an object definition that are obligatory are the class list and the terminating semi-colon (or braces). The following is a perfectly legal (though almost certainly pointless and useless) object definition:

Thing;

This creates an anonymous object of class Thing with all the default methods and properties of the Thing class and nothing else. Although this particular example would be completely pointless, there are other occasions on which anonymous objects can be useful. We'll encounter some of them in due course.

Templates

As we saw in the previous chapter, object definitions can be abbreviated via use of templates. A template is simply a way of allowing you to define certain properties without explicitly naming which properties you mean, because the template instructs the compiler to expect certain kinds of value in a particular order. The two templates you will probably use most frequently when writing games with adv3Lite are those for Thing and Room, so these are the two you need to become totally familiar with. (Later on we'll be meeting a whole lot of templates for use with the conversation system, but we don't need to worry about that for now).

The template for the Thing class is basically:

   'vocab' @location? "desc"?

The question-mark denotes an optional element. This means that when we're defining a Thing and we're using its template, the first property we must define is its vocab property, simply by supplying a single-quoted string. We can then, if we wish, define the starting location of the object by using an @ sign directly followed by the programmatic name of the Room or other object in which the Thing we're defining starts out (but we can leave this part of the template out if we wish). We can then define the desc property of the Thing by writing it between double quote-marks (but we can leave this out too if we wish). Thus, using the Thing template we could define the redBall object used as an example above in any of the three following (functionally equivalent) ways:

redBall: Thing'red ball;; round'
   "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
;

Or equivalently:

redBall: Thing
{
   'red ball;; round'
   "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
}

Or equivalently:

redBall: Thing 'red ball;; round'
 "It's just a round red ball. "
 {
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
}

In other words, if we define an object using the brace notation along with a template, we can either put the template properties immediately before the opening brace or immediately after it. In what follows, however, we shall mainly stick to the first of the three forms above (with the terminal semicolon in place of braces).

We've already met the Room template in the form:

'roomTitle' "desc"?;

So for example, we can define the starting location of The Adventures of Heidi like this:

beforeCottage: Room 'In front of a Cottage'
    "You stand outside a cottage. The forest stretches east. "
    
    east = forest
;

Here, 'In front of a Cottage' is thus the roomTitle property of beforeCottage, and "You stand outside a cottage. The forest stretches east. " is its desc property. There's also a second form of the Room template which looks like this:

'roomTitle' 'vocab' "desc"?;

Which would allow us to define the vocab property of a Room as well, for example:

beforeCottage: Room 'In front of a Cottage' 'front of the cottage'
    "You stand outside a cottage. The forest stretches east. "
    
    east = forest
;

This would give the beforeCottage room a display name (note, this is quite separate from the roomTitle that appears at the head of the room description) of 'front of the cottage' and would allow the player to refer to it as such. If that doesn't make too much sense right now, don't worry, because we'll be coming back to it in Chapter Seven (and not until then).

Referring to Properties and Methods

It's possible, and often extremely likely, that the same property or method name will be used on more than one object. For example if we also defined a blueBall, a greenBall and a yellowBall, they might all have vocab, desc and bounces properties, and they might all have their own version of a method call doBounce(). How then do we make sure the compiler knows which one we mean when we refer to a desc property or to the doBounce() method?

The answer is that we qualify the property or method name by using the dot notation. This means that to refer to the desc property of redBall we'd write redBall.desc, while to refer to the doBounce() method of yellowBall we'd write yellowBall.doBounce().

The one exception to this is when we want to refer to a method or property of an object from a method or property of the same object. In that case, there's no need to qualify the method or property name, since the compiler will assume that we're talking about the same object. That's why we can write:

redBall: Thing 'red ball;; round'
   "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      bounces = bounces + 1;
   }
;

Rather than:

redBall: Thing 'red ball;; round'
   "It's just a round red ball. "
   
   bounces = 0
   
   doBounce()
   {
      "The red ball bounces back up when you drop it. ";
      redBall.bounces = redBall.bounces + 1; //There's no need for this!
   }
;

Indeed, in this kind of case, the second form is best avoided.

In some cases, an object may need to refer to itself, in which case we should use the special keyword self, for example, if the nest needed to test whether the bird was inside it we might write:

+ nest: Thing 'bird\'s nest; carefully woven; moss twigs'
    "The nest is carefully woven of twigs and moss. "
    
    contType = In   
    bulk = 1
    
    afterAction()
    {
       if(bird.isIn(self))
         /* do something appropriate here */
    }
;

Class Definitions

We noted above that defining a class is much like defining an object. The main difference is when defining a class, you begin the definition, surprisingly enough, with the word class. It's also conventional (though not strictly necessary) to begin the name of a class with a capital letter.

For example, in the Heidi game we developed above, we had a nest you could put things in and a branch you could put things on. We implemented these as Things whose contType properties were respectively In and On. If we had lots of things in our game we wanted to put things in and on we could have created custom classes for the purpose (though in practice most class definitions would probably be more complex than this):

class Surface: Thing
   contType = On
;

class Container: Thing
   contType = In
;

This would make a Surface just like a Thing except that you could put things on it, and a Container just like a Thing except that you could put things in it. We could then have defined the nest and the branch thus:

 
+ nest: Container 'bird\'s nest; carefully woven; moss twigs'
    "The nest is carefully woven of twigs and moss. "
           
    bulk = 1
;

...

+ branch: Surface 'wide firm bough; flat; branch'
    "It's flat enough to support a small object. "
        
    isListed = true
    contType = On
    
    afterAction()
    {
        if(nest.isIn(self))
            finishGameMsg(ftVictory, [finishOptionUndo]);
    }
;

In fact, we could have done this anyway, since the adv3Lite already defines a Surface class and a Container class along these lines (we won't use them in the Heidi game though; instead we'll wait till Chapter 6). To give another example (which isn't in the library), we might have a game with a lot of Surfaces that are also fixed in place (like the branch), since the kinds of things people put things on (such as desks and tables and shelves) often aren't portable. We might then feel it useful to define a FixedSurface class which we could define in a number of ways:

class FixedSurface: Thing
   isFixed = true
   contType = On
;

class FixedSurface: Surface
   isFixed = true
;

class Fixture: Thing
   isFixed =  true
;

class FixedSurface: Fixture, Surface
;

Of these, the last is probably the best (given that the adv3Lite library does in fact already define a Fixture class), since it makes the relationships between the classes more explicit. In particular, if we want to test whether something is a Fixture or a Surface, defining FixedSurface by the last method will ensure that we included FixedSurfaces among the things that count as such.

Object Definitions

Physical Objects and Programming Objects

Objects and Classes

Defining Objects

Templates

Referring to Properties and Methods

Class Definitions

Further Reading